Guest Post: AMPA Receptors are not Necessary for long term potentiation

Today's post is brought to you by @BabyAttachMode, who is an electrophysiologist and blogger. Today we are blog swapping! I have a post over at her blog and her post about AMPA receptors and LTP is here. So enjoy, and when you're done reading about the newest advances in synaptic plasticity here, you can head over to InBabyAttachMode and read about my personal life.
 
AMPA Receptors are not Necessary for long term potentiation

Science is most interesting to me when you’re testing a hypothesis, and not only do you prove the hypothesis to be false, but you discover something unexpected. I think that happened to Granger et al. They were trying to find which part of the AMPA receptor is necessary for long-term potentiation(LTP), the process that strengthens the connection between two brain cells when that connection is used often. Indeed they find that AMPA receptors are not necessary at all for LTP, which is very surprising given the large body of literature describing how the GluA1 subunits of the AMPA receptor, through interactions with other synaptic molecules that bind to the intracellular C-tail (the end of the receptor that is located inside the cell), are inserted into the synapse to induce LTP.

LTP (source)

The authors made an inducible triple knock-out, which means that they could switch off the genes for the three different AMPA receptor subunits GluA1, GluA2 and GluA3. This way, they ended up with mice that had no AMPA receptors at all. The authors were then able to selectively put back one of the AMPA receptors, either the entire receptor or a mutated receptor. By inserting mutated receptors, for example a receptor that lacks its intracellular C-tail that was thought to be important for insertion of the AMPA receptor into the synapse, they could then study whether this mutated receptor was still sufficient for induction of LTP.

Surprisingly, they found that deleting the C-tail of the GluA1 subunit does not change the cell’s ability to induce LTP. Even more so, they showed that you don’t even need any AMPA receptor to still be able to induce LTP; the kainate receptor (another type of glutamate receptor that has never been implicated in LTP) can take over its job too.

Figure 6C from Granger et al. (2013). Kainate receptor overexpression can lead to LTP expression, without the presence of AMPA receptors.

About this surprising discovery the authors say the following:

"These results demonstrate the synapse's remarkable flexibility to potentiate with a variety of glutamate receptor subtypes, requiring a fundamental change in our thinking with regard to the core molecular events underlying synaptic plasticity."

Of course if you say something like that, the main players in the LTP field will have something to say about it, and they did. Three giants in the field of synaptic physiology commented in the journal Nature, but their opinions differed. Morgan Shang called it "a step forward", whereas Roberto Malinow and Richard Huganir called it "two steps back", saying that LTP without AMPA receptors can only happen in the artificial system that the authors of the paper use to study this. They expect that cells lacking all three AMPA receptors will look so different from the normal cells that the results are difficult to interpret.

Either way, this paper opens new views and questions to how LTP works, and whether AMPA receptors are as important as we thought.


Granger AJ, Shi Y, Lu W, Cerpas M, & Nicoll RA (2013). LTP requires a reserve pool of glutamate receptors independent of subunit type. Nature, 493 (7433), 495-500 PMID: 23235828
 
Sheng M, Malinow R, & Huganir R (2013). Neuroscience: Strength in numbers. Nature, 493 (7433), 482-3 PMID: 23344353

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Choose CBT For Anxiety Treatment

Is CBT for anxiety a useful treatment effective in buffering down stress and tension? To answer the question, first we have to understand the intricacies of the technique and the procedure involved in this therapy for curing psychological strain and stress. It is generally used on a patient for some period of time with some distinct specific goals to achieve. The aim of the therapy is to try and change negative thoughts in one's mind so as to boost their positive mentality and behavior.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy came into the world scene as a method that stresses on understanding human cognition and to find a solution to uproot the negativity or pessimism in a person. Cognitive theories say that human behaviors are nothing but reactions to our own internal thoughts that stimulates the responses, rather than external events and stimulus. Because thoughts are germinated in our mind, we can try to detach and overlook our negative attitudes and thoughts that can lead to anxiety and depression.

When we learn to structure a positive pattern of thinking, our negative cognitions or reactions will begin to minimize or reduce and finally it will cease to germinate. Under the careful supervision and diagnosis of a skilled professional therapist, cognitive behavioral therapy helps a patient to get rid of his/her mental problems in a simpler way. Step by step resolution of a bigger problem into smaller bits so that they don't seem to be daunting like earlier. This CBT for anxiety helps the patient and the therapist to share a common interface to work together to find solutions to these smaller concerns further.

This methodillustrates the process of substituting our negative attitudes with positive mental thought in order to transform and correct behaviors, beliefs and attitudes to help a victim to stand firm against his mental odds. It is an accepted fact that cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety acts as a great stress buster. It works best when a trained and skillful therapist is involved in the approach to cure psychologically. People who are prone to stress and suffer from anxiety believe that what they are thinking is right and in no way they can think wrong.

These negative thinking are dealt with CBT for anxiety. Trying new, positive and more healthy and constructive ways of thinking is what the expert and professional therapists will be training the patients.

The treatment procedure deals with framing solutions by projecting CBT as an approach with a number of self help options to cure stress and strain and includes:

Recognizing negative thinkingGranting mental threats in our mind as imaginarySeeking for alternative way to alter thinking pattern that elevates healthier behaviors.

CBT for anxiety can be a bit costly, so resort to self help. Read positive mental attitude books to culture positive thoughts in your mind. Try to lead a healthy lifestyle to stay anxiety free. Such therapies or any other similar solutions can heal you fast and is credited with effective and positive results.

Cogo2 provides an online Cognitive Behavioural Therapy application. It helps to reduce and manage depression and Anxiety by using CBT for Depression . User get the online help for depression and online help for anxiety and manage too.

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Seniors and Elderly Suffering Holiday Depression

As Christmas approaches, most of us begin to feel the delight and anticipation the holiday festivities bring. We marvel at the houses bedecked with brilliant multi-colored lights and are uplifted by the sense of family. It's easy to get caught up in the planning and excitement of presents, parties and celebrations.

But not everyone rejoices at the holiday cheer. In fact this is a time of year when many seniors, elderly and disabled individuals succumb to depression. It's difficult to go on celebrating year after year when you've lost people you've known for years to illness and old age. Also, having fewer relatives and friends in your life means you can feel forgotten or believe you're a burden to those who know you. Many seniors and elderly people withdraw gradually and their families and loved ones may not even realize they are depressed.

Depression is easy to overlook because we've all felt down, sad or frustrated at one time or another and the clinical symptoms cover so many other illnesses. Someone suffering from depression may not even realize it, they may just think they're tired or burned out. Depression is an insidious illness that is hard to recognize and fight, especially alone.

The most common symptoms of depression are fatigue and lack of energy or enthusiasm, feelings of being worthless or hopeless, irritability or anxiety. People suffering with depression lose interest in hobbies and activities they usually enjoy, have trouble making decisions and concentrating or remembering details. Loss of appetite or overeating is also an indicator that something serious is wrong. Another possible sign of depression is insomnia, the inability to sleep adds to the person's failure to concentrate or think straight. Lack of sleep can also cause hallucinations and increase feelings of hopelessness. And of course, having thoughts of suicide or making suicidal attempts.

The thought of being alone during the holidays can be overwhelmingly painful and unbearable even without clinical depression. Fortunately, there is a solution. If you know someone suffering from depression or who needs in home care services, homecare agencies can arrange a Senior Companion or Caregiver to provide company and assistance. Services are either hourly or 24 hour live in care and can include companionship, personal hygiene, housecleaning, laundry, errands, cooking and transportation to doctor's and social appointments.

Jackie Brown is a Case Manager at A-1 Home Care Agency and is the author of several newsletters and articles on their website and blogs. She has written about Depression and other senior ailments including Alzheimer's, Dementia and Caregiver Services.

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Brief Introduction to Psychotic Disorders

Psychotic disorders, like schizophrenia, are a group of serious illnesses that have impact on mind. These diseases change a person's ability to think clearly, make good judgments, respond psychologically, communicate effectively, understand reality, and act appropriately. When signs are serious, people with psychotic conditions have problems staying in touch with reality and often are unable to fulfill the common requirements of daily life. However, even the most severe psychotic disorders usually are curable.

There are different types of psychotic conditionds, including:

Brief psychotic disorder: People with this illness have rapid, short periods of psychotic behavior, often in reaction to a very traumatic occasion, such as a death in the family. Recovery is often quick -- usually less than 30 days.Shared psychotic disorder: This condition happens when an individual produces delusions in the perspective of a connection with another individual who already has his or her own delusion(s).Psychotic disorder due to a medical condition: Hallucinations, delusions, or other signs may be the result of another illness that impacts on brain functioning, such as a head injury or brain tumor.Schizophreniform disorder: People with this illness have symptoms of schizophrenia, but the symptoms last between one and six months.Schizophrenia: People with this disorder have changes in behavior and other symptoms -- such as delusions and hallucinations -- that last longer than six months, usually with a decrease in work, school, and social functioning.Delusional disorder: People with this illness have delusions including real-life situations that could be true, such as being followed, being conspired against, or having a disease. These delusions stick up for at least one month.Schizoaffective disorder: People with this illness have warning signs of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder, such as depression or bipolar disorder (bpd).Substance-induced psychotic disorder: This condition is caused by the use of or drawback from some substances, such as alcohol and drugs, that may cause hallucinations, delusions, or confused conversation.Paraphrenia: This is a type of schizophrenia that starts late in life and mostly happens in the elderly population.

Symptoms of Psychotic Disorder:

Symptoms of a psychotic disorder differ from person to person and may change over time. The major symptoms are hallucinations and delusions.

Hallucinations are unusual neurological experiences or views of things that aren't actually present, such as seeing things that aren't there, hearing voices, sensing odors, having a "funny" flavor in the oral cavity area, and feeling sensations on your skin even though nothing is in contact with your body.

Delusions are false beliefs that are chronic and structured, and that do not go away after receiving logical or precise information. For example, a person who is certain with his or her food is poisoned, even if it has been proven that the food is fine, then he is suffering from a delusion.

Other possible symptoms of psychotic illnesses include:

Confused thinkingStrange,possibly dangerous behaviorLoss of interest in activitiesProblems at school or work and with relationshipsCold, detached manner with the inability to express emotionMood swings or other mood symptoms, such as depression or mania

Causes of Psychotic Disorders:

The actual cause of psychotic conditions is not known, but scientists believe that many aspects may be a factor. Some psychotic conditions usually run in family members, indicating that the tendency, to create the problem may be inherited. Ecological aspects may also be a factor in their growth, such as pressure, substance misuse, and significant lifestyle changes.

In addition, people with certain psychotic disorders may have an imbalance of certain chemicals in the mind. They may be either very delicate to or generate too much of a chemical substance called dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, a natural substance that helps nerve cells in the brain deliver information to each other. An imbalance of dopamine affects the way the brain reacts to certain stimulating elements, such as sounds, smells, and sights, and can lead to hallucinations and delusions.

Author works for OMICS Group . OMICS Publishing Group is built upon the principles of Open Access and is determined to provide free and unrestricted access of research articles to scientists around the world for the advancement of science and technology. For more related information, please visit reviews on OMICS Publishing Group journals . Rate this Article

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Rekha Reddy S has published 41 articles. Article submitted on November 26, 2012. Word count: 628

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Dealing With Diabetes, Facts and Treatments for Diabetes

Dealing With Diabetes, Facts and Treatments for Diabetes. Cases of children with diabetes have been increasing in the past ten years. It is not only the case of overweight but more seriously, it warns all parents and caretaker that the illness that used to be the enemies of elderly has shifted to earlier age. What is actually diabetes and how to protect our family from this health problem? Is

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Understanding Depression

Depression is a disease which affects individuals and families all over the world in terrible ways - sometimes, tragically, to the extent where sufferers are lost to suicide. This disorder is one which is still not understood well by the general public, although the medical community has developed a much better understanding of what it is, what causes it and how best to treat it in recent years.

It's important to understand that first and foremost depression is a real disorder, not simply someone being 'down in the dumps.' It is this misconception that sufferers can simply 'get over it' that causes many sufferers to avoid seeking the treatment they desperately need. This is a misconception that needs to be corrected - and thankfully, more people are beginning to be more open-minded about it and more understanding of what its sufferers have to go through.

What many people also don't realise is that there are different types of depression. The disorder we typically associate with the word depression is what is clinically known as 'major depression.' This is distinguished from bipolar depression. Major depression is characterised by consistently low moods, whereas bipolar typically involves rapid changes between low moods and episodes of high-intensity, frenetic behavior. Bipolar depression is also known as manic, because of this flux between depressed and manic states.

So how do you recognise this disorder? It's important to know the signs and symptoms so you can pick up on it not only in others, but in yourself (many people suffering this don't actually consider that they have the disorder. This is partly because some symptoms don't fit with the widespread misconceptions about the disorder.)

In order for a diagnosis of major depression to be made, the low moods need to have been occurring consistently for a long period of time - generally longer than 6 months before medications will be prescribed. It can be triggered by a difficult life event, although often there are other underlying causes which build up to a person becoming depressed.

Aside from the typical 'blue mood,' other symptoms include consistent feelings of hopelessness, loss of self esteem and a feeling that life is pointless. Changes in appetite are common, and sufferers also often find they lose interest in all activities - even activities which they previously enjoyed a great deal. Sleeping problems and a reduction in sex drive are other common indicators to keep an eye out for.

For more help understanding depression, please visit What Is Depression?

Richard Atchison, raised in New Zealand, graduated in 2002 from Auckland High School. A Presidential Scholar, he entered Auckland State University that autumn as an English major, with an emphasis in Literary Studies. Presently, an article contributor for various sites. What Is Depression?

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Some Incredibly Strange Brain Disorders

Introduction:

You're used to counting on the brain. Whatever else happens, your individual group of grayish issue will take on the globe, and reply to it in a liquid and foreseeable way. But actually, whatever the brain does is created up of many subsequent psychological actions - and if just one of those actions isn't able, you'll find yourself acting very in a different way. Astasia-Abasia Sufferers Are Always On the Brink of Dropping, Anosognia Sufferers Are Incapable to Identify Their Own Accidents, Broca's Aphasia Sufferers Are Able to Do Everything But Discuss, Palinopsia Sufferers Basically Cannot Hidden Things, Dysmimia or Amimia Sufferers Don't Know if You Give Them the Handy, Dysantigraphia Sufferers Can't Probably Duplicate Their The next door neighbors Document, Amelodia Sufferers Can Never Name That Track, Anhedonia Sufferers Can't Take Satisfaction in Anything and Vocabulary aphasia Sufferers Are Make shift Gertrude Steins.

Main idea:

Astasia-Abasia is also known as Blocq's Condition, after John Blocq, the France physician who first described it. It's the lack of ability to take a position or stroll effectively, but there's more to it. At first, a individual with this situation seems to be very intoxicated. Sufferers dark when they try to take a position or stroll. Sufferers seem risky to themselves. They overbalance excessively, always capturing themselves at the last time. But that's the situation - they always capture themselves. Individuals with Blocq's Condition almost never harm themselves. They only drop when a physician, a family member, or a smooth place on the floor is available. Often this situation is in reaction to pressure. The most popular situation of this occurred in the Sixties, when not one but two cadets at Western Factor came down with the situation, physicians believe as a reaction to the pressure of exercising at the famous university. Anosognia occurs together with other traumas - usually swings and loss of sight. Individuals who have missing the capability to management one 50 percent of their system will say that they just don't want to shift that aspect of their system. They'll say that that 50 percent of one's human is really operating normally, after all. When physicians display that it isn't operating, they'll say that the areas of the system that the physicians are directing to are part of someone else, or even that they have three arms, arms, or feet, and are going the ones that the physicians don't see. There was even a situation of a lady who had gone almost absolutely sightless but was adamant that she could see normally - cobbling together a 'vision' of what was occurring around her from glimpses on the unharmed areas of her sight, from reminiscences, and from any seems to be that she could listen to around her.

Patients with Broca's Aphasia are able to create, to study, to pay attention and understand people, and are able to speak - but not able to type many consistent terms. The situation is caused by an damage to Broca's place, the individual's capability to management what their lips are saying goes away. Some individuals are able to handle about four terms, but most reduce their capability to say what they want. Sometimes, they even will not be able to know that they aren't saying what they mean to say. One of the most popular situations of this was a man who basically recurring "Tono tone tono tono tono," to every query requested him. Although he could understand everything, he couldn't make his mouth area say the terms he required to reply. Palinopsia is not actually a healthcare problem. It's just the after-image that a lot of people after they look away from shiny things. Sometimes, though, it continues a little a lengthy time. A seventy-three-year-old lady joined a Celebration the day after a very bad frustration and observed that, after she checked out a Santa Claus who was operating at the party, she saw a Santa Claus facial beard on everybody's experience for the relax of the party. Times later she still saw people red Santa Claus caps and red Santa Claus overcoats strolling around the roads. Another lady saw areas of her spouse's experience superimposed on everything, or halo of mild from a screen dropping out the right aspect of individuals leads. No one is sure what causes palinopsia, but treatment adverse reactions or patches on the mind are the most likely applicants.

Conclusion:

Dismimia is a strangely particular little situation. There's no way of knowing exactly what causes it, but it prevents the victim from knowing side actions or side alerts. Typical actions for 'wait,' 'stop,' or 'sit and whirl,' are instantly incomprehensive. These actions are missing even if the affected individual formerly realized their significance. This problem was first seen in a Vietnam expert who confirmed exactly what happens when you don't regularly censor yourself at your job: You get taken. You get taken over and over until such time as someone delivers you to a physician. This particular situation was steered towards mindset - rather than an manners guide - because the knight had been taken in the go decades before. The right front side aspect of the mind has something in it that allows individuals consider their terms and silently keep the culturally unhelpful ones within. Other injuries to this place of the mind have triggered identical reactions.

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